Williams, David R., Jourdyn A. Lawrence, and Brigette A. Davis. “Racism and health: evidence and needed research.” Annual review of public health 40 (2019): 105-125.
The article is a peer-reviewed publication in the Annual Review of Public Health journal by authors based at Harvard University and the University at Cape Town. It provides an overview of the evidence linking the primary racism domains – structural, cultural, and individual-level discrimination – to mental and physical health outcomes. It is a qualitative research paper, with some limitations, as the authors identify. The research provides compelling literature to inform the current research article on the psychological impact of racism – stereotyping. The article provides information that establishes a relationship between the Native American people’s cultural racism through the use of Indian mascots and the ethnic group’s psychological well-being. It is relatively recent, meaning the information is highly relevant and reliable.
Read more: SAMPLE PAPER: Annotated BibliographyJacobs, Michelle R. “Race, place, and biography at play: Contextualizing American Indian viewpoints on Indian mascots.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 38.4 (2014): 322-345.
Michelle R. Jacobs presents an article appearing in the Journal of Sport and Social Issues as part of a discussion regarding the various viewpoints that Native Americans have regarding the use of Indian mascots for games. The primary argument made is that Natives who have experienced both the reservation and city life in a region with a prominent Indian mascot are more likely to have heightened sensitivity to the harmful consequences of all Indian stereotypes. It is a primary research paper that provides first-hand information from respondents. The paper is appropriate for the introduction section of the research. It is relatively recent, meaning that it captures significantly crucial information.
Bollinger, Stephanie Jade. “Between a tomahawk and a hard place: Indian mascots and the NCAA.” BYU Educ. & LJ (2016): 73.
The author is a senior editor at BYU Law Review, and she offers a critical discussion of Indian mascot usage in sports in the article. The author acknowledges the negative attributes associated with Indian mascots and the challenges posed by its proponents from a law point of view. The research is highly relevant to the article since it offers a critical perspective on the pros and cons of Indian mascots, which adds rigor to the article. It offers multiple perspectives on the issue, allowing for critical discussion in the research essay. It is qualitative, meaning that it may suffer some limitations, though the author does not highlight them. Regardless, it references some highly credible information sources, and it is relatively recent, which adds to the reliability and validity of its claims.
Williams, Dana M. “But It’s Honoring! It’s Tradition!.” Getting Real About Race: Hoodies, Mascots, Model Minorities, and Other Conversations (2017): 118.
Dana Williams is an author from the California State University, whose article features in the book Getting Real about Race. The essay provides a critical analysis of the use of Indian Mascots, affirming that the struggle comes down to being White or a person of colour. These attributes determine the perception of Indian imagery use in sports – whether supported or opposed. The article’s value emanates from the useful information it provides to help critique the argument made by the research paper. It is a qualitative exploratory paper that is relatively recent. These aspects make it an informative resource to use for the critical analysis article. Also, the fact that the article is part of a book publication adds to its reliability.
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Argumentative Research Paper: Indians as Mascots
The use and impact of Indian imagery for athletic teams at the school and professional level is controversial. There are at minimum two conflicting perspectives on the use of Indian mascots. There are at minimum two conflicting perspectives. According to Jacobs (323), critics believe that maintaining this imagery “relegates Native peoples, identities, and cultures to a fixed and fictitious moment in Euro-American history.” Doing so ignores the historical context within which these Natives have evolved to today’s rich and diverse culture. Proponents argue that Indian mascots “honor Native peoples by focusing attention on positive attributes of Indianness – aggressiveness, bravery, and strength” (Jacobs 324). Nonetheless, the present article argues that using Native American culture, tradition, and beliefs in sports team names, mascots, and logos construes as evidence of continuing racism against this ethnic group. Perpetuating such norms has adverse psychological impacts on the well-being of Native Indians and should stop.
There has been a remarkable growth in scientific literature exploring various ways racism can affect victims’ health and well-being. One of the mediums explored is cultural racism, which affects health in multiple ways. Cultural racism occurs when a group instills “an inferiority ideology in the values, language, imagery, symbols, and unstated assumptions of the larger society” (Williams et al. 110). According to Bollinger (98), an adverse implication of using Indian mascots is that it may serve as a “badge of inferiority” for Native Americans as most other groups do not serve as mascots. It contributes to the stereotype threat, referring to the anxieties and expectations activated in stigmatized groups after experiencing negative stereotypes concerning their group. Stereotype threats contribute to poor academic performance and psychological functioning, such as lowered self-esteem, community worth, and achievement aspirations, as observed in a study examining American Indian students’ exposure to Native American mascots (Williams et al. 111).
According to more recent research, authors Fryberg et al. (8) conclude that even though the Indian mascot debate carries on, there is clear evidence of detrimental impacts on the psychological well-being of Native people. The authors note that the use of Native mascots for sports activities decreases self-esteem, community worth, and achievement-related aspirations, as noted in the previous text, and adds on issues such as stress and depression. From an ethical and rational point of view, the continued use of Indian mascots should cease unless the ethnic group provides consent to do so. However, given the current trajectory and various discussions available, it appears that there are widely varying views on the Native perspectives on the Indian mascot issue (Jacobs 343; Fryberg et al. 8). There may lack an intragroup consensus regarding an appropriate resolution towards the solution. A definite solution would be to do away with the practice, thus reducing one of the significant challenges experienced by Native Americans in contemporary society. These are views shared by prominent groups, such as the American Psychological Association and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).
Although the adverse impact on psychological well-being has received tremendous support from scholars, counterclaim arguments hold that Indian mascots appreciate Native American culture and its significant history. Proponents come up with all sorts of “positive” stereotypes to support the claim, ascribing such values as brave, noble, fierce to compliment Native Americans (Williams 118). They use such positive connotations to reinforce the perception that using Indian mascots does not relegate the culture and instead celebrates it as other racial and ethnic mascots in the sports world, such as the Notre Dame Fighting Irish and Minnesota Vikings. However, they fail to understand that despite the Indian mascots portraying a positive image of Native Americans, the image portrayed remains a stereotype that does not represent today’s Native American culture. Instead, most Indian mascots and associated imagery portray fantasy and fictitious versions of Indians from the past. These representations are what most people will ascribe to individuals within the ethnic group or use them as references to understand the group, which then becomes a source of stereotype threat. Consequently, the rationale that Indian mascots honor the Native American people is simply an afterthought to justify their existence without considering the broader implications to the ethnic group affected and society.
In conclusion, the use of Indian mascots in sports has an undoubtedly psychological impact on the Native Americans who have to live and experience stereotypes made concerning their culture. Even though sports teams may incline towards selecting an Indian mascot for the perceived values and characteristics of Native Americans, these attributes are inherently stereotypical. They infer different meanings from those within and outside the ethnic group. Those within the group and directly affected by the negative perceptions that arise from it may experience significant psychological implications that could adversely affect their social situations. The NCAA adopted an approach where teams seek approval before taking on an Indian mascot. As far as this may help regulate public perceptions of the motivations behind the selection, it is essential to consider the broader impact it may have on those whose culture it affects to avoid unintended psychological harm.
Works Cited
Bollinger, Stephanie Jade. “Between a tomahawk and a hard place: Indian mascots and the NCAA.” BYU Educ. & LJ(2016): 73.
Fryberg, Stephanie A., et al. “Unpacking the Mascot Debate: Native American Identification Predicts Opposition to Native Mascots.” Social Psychological and Personality Science (2020): 1948550619898556.
Jacobs, Michelle R. “Race, place, and biography at play: Contextualizing American Indian viewpoints on Indian mascots.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 38.4 (2014): 322-345.
Williams, Dana M. “But It’s Honoring! It’s Tradition!.” Getting Real About Race: Hoodies, Mascots, Model Minorities, and Other Conversations (2017): 118.
Williams, David R., Jourdyn A. Lawrence, and Brigette A. Davis. “Racism and health: evidence and needed research.” Annual review of public health 40 (2019): 105-125.
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